One of the earliest efforts to develop a theory of values was introduced by Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck in 1961. The Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck model suggested that every cultural group has universal concerns / needs from which cultural values arise. In their model, they define five categories associated with these concerns and include three possible orientations within each of these categories:
Human nature
- Seen as basically good, evil, or a mix of both. An exploration of legal, judicial, and to varying extents, religious practices within a cultural group can help provide clues to these orientations.
- A basic belief in the goodness of human nature might be seen within cultural groups that opt for the rehabilitation of criminals during and after a period of incarceration. Certain religions, such as Buddhism are perceived as also having this orientation.
- A basic belief in the evil of human nature might be seen within cultural groups with stricter laws that utilize punishment rather than rehabilitation. Laws may also be connected to, or integrated with religious practices and beliefs.
- A basic belief in a mix of good and evil, might be seen within cultural groups that have changed over time, and have, to a certain extent, adopted a more dualistic approach. As an example, religious views become more focused on the good, while legal practices become stricter and more focused on punishment.
The relationship between human beings and the natural world
- Split into dominance, submission, and harmony.
- Cultural groups that hold a dominance orientation, try to control nature to a certain extent (e.g., damming / rerouting rivers, medical interventions for conception).
- A submission orientation can be seen in cultural groups that use fewer interventions to control nature. Community members may live in an area with a high risk of landslides, but accept their ‘risky relationship’ with nature.
- A focus on harmony can be seen in cultural groups preferring to live together with nature, neither dominating the other. Respect is given to nature, and this may be seen through spiritual or religious practices. Indigenous groups are often perceived as having an orientation associated with harmony.
Time
- Divided into past, present, and future orientations.
- Cultural groups with a past orientation tend to look at history as contributing to an understanding of the present. One such example is Japan, which brings past practices into future understanding of workplace systems.
- Present-oriented cultural groups look at the here and now, live in the moment, and discover the potential of the present. Mediterranean cultures are often associated with this type of outlook.
- Future oriented cultural groups, such as what one might associate with middle-class European Americans, look to the future with optimism, to discover new things, and/or to improve on how things are being done in the present.
The relationships between humans
- Divided into individual, collective, and collateral.
- Cultural groups with a focus on the individual tend to place value on individual achievements, individual rights, and independence.
- Those with a collective focus tend to place more value on the family, extended family, and community. In these settings, there is interdependence, group cohesion, and a push for harmony within the group.
- A collateral orientation is seen in cultures that are more group orientated. There is a connection to ancestors who have died, and seen as influencing the family and family relations in the present.
The preferred personality
- Divided into doing, growing, and being,
- Cultural groups with a doing orientation prefer productivity and keeping busy. There is a tendency toward action and results.
- Cultural groups with a growing orientation tend to focus more on the spiritual and intellectual aspects of life, and want to develop abilities that are of value to the group.
- Cultural groups with a being orientation strive for self-actualization, and as part of this process, find value in key experiences and relationships.